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Context

The tragic tale of the Sacrifice of Polyxena is a story alluding to the myth of the Trojan War and the hero Achilles. In this episode of events in the postwar period, the reader sees themes of honor, revenge, and human losses that heroism is not able to restore. The immediate setting in which the text takes place is the Greek fleet, commanded by Agamemnon, Atrides, and temporarily parked on the Thracian shore, waiting for the propitious winds to return to its homeland. Polyxena is the noble and virtuous maiden, the youngest daughter of Priam, the King of Troy, who heroically accepts the inevitable lot and pleads that her death remains noble, clean from servitude. This passage is quite important in the larger myth of the Trojan War, generally recounted in the epic poem Homer's Iliad. The entire myth of the sacrifice of Polyxena happens after the fall of Troy; it is a symbol of the continuing results of the war and of its heroes. In death, Achilles continued his influence on the life of the living, which demanded as much respect and honor for himself in death as in life. Polyxena's self-sacrifice serves to placate his troubled spirit, emphasizing the dire nature of his heroic but cruel character. According to the myth, Achilles was killed by Paris during the course of the Trojan War, creating a hole in the Greek forces. His demand for Polyxena's sacrifice is due to the need for posthumous recognition, a common theme in Greek mythology where the deceased required rites and honors to lie in peace. The story of Polyxena occurs in many other sources, where she is portrayed as a tragic figure of nobility; in Ovid's Metamorphoses, for example, she appears as one such. The story illustrates the crushing burden of Achilles' legacy: this war of the never-ending cycle of slaughter and offering, in which Polyxena had always known that she must pay the final dues, fulfilling the war's sinister perpetuation. In her noble consent to death, Polyxena realizes the ideal of courage and honor as opposed to the ruthless imperatives of Achilles' ghost.

Latin Text

Lītore Thrēiciō classem religārat Atrīdēs,

​

dum mare pācātum, dum ventus amīcior esset:               440

 

hic subitō, quantus, cum vīveret, esse solēbat,

 

exit humō lātē rupta similisque minantī

 

temporis illīus vultum referēbat Achillēs,

 

quō ferus iniūstum petiit Agamemnona ferrō

 

'inmemorēs' que 'meī discēditis,' inquit 'Achīvī,              445

 

obrutaque est mēcum virtūtis grātia nostrae!

 

nē facite! utque meum nōn sit sine honōre sepulcrum,

 

placet Achillēōs mactāta Polyxena manēs!'

 

dīxit, et inmītī sociīs parentibus umbrae,

 

raptā sinū mātris, quam iam prope sōla fovēbat,              450

 

fortis et īnfēlīx et plūs quam fēmina virgō

 

dūcitur ad tumulum dīrōque fit hostia bustō.

 

quae memor ipsa suī postquam crūdēlibus ārīs

 

admōta est sēnsitque sibi fera sacra parārī,

 

utque Neoptolemum stantem ferrumque tenentem;              455

 

inque suō vīdit fīgentem lūmina vultū,

 

'ūtere iamdūdum generōsō sanguine' dīxit

 

'nūlla mora est; at tū iugulō vel pectore tēlum

 

conde meō' iugulumque simul pectusque retēxit.

 

'scīlicet haud ūllī servīre Polyxenā vellem.              460

 

haud per tāle sacrum nūmen plācābitis ūllum!

 

mors tantum vellem mātrem mea fallere posset:

 

māter obēst minuitque necīs mihi gaudia, quamvīs

 

nōn mea mors illī, vērum suā vītā tremenda est.

 

vōs modo, nē Stygiōs adeam nōn līberā manēs,              465

 

īte procul, sī iūsta petō, tāctūque virīlēs

 

virgineō removēte manūs! acceptior illī,

 

quisquis is est, quem caede meā plācāre parātis,

 

liber erit sanguis. sīquōs tamen ultima nostrī

 

verba movent ōrīs (Priamī vōs fīlia rēgis,              470

 

nōn captīva rogat), genetrīcī corpus inēmptum

 

reddite, nēve aurō redimat iūs trīste sepulcrī,

 

sed lacrimīs! tum, cum poterat, redimēbat et aurō.'

 

dīxerat, at populus lacrimās, quās illa tenēbat,

 

nōn tenet; ipse etiam flēns invītusque sacerdōs              475

 

praebita coniectō rūpit praecordia ferrō.

 

illa super terram dēfectō poplite lābēns

 

pertulit intrepidōs ad fāta novissima vultūs;

 

tunc quoque cūra fuit partēs vēlāre tegendās,

 

cum caderet, castīque decus servāre pudōris.

​Notes

  1. Atrīdēs (line 439) - Agamemnon or Menelaus, referring specifically to Agamemnon here as a descendant of Atreus.

  2. Ventus amīcior (line 440) - More favorable wind. Ventus means wind, and amīcior is the comparative form of amīcus, meaning friendlier or more favorable.

  3. dum ventus amīcior esset: (line 440) - Temporal clause subjunctive

  4. Quantus (line 441) - As great as. Indicates the magnitude or extent, emphasizing the formidable presence of Achilles even in death.

  5. Humō (line 442) - From the ground. Humus means ground or earth, indicating the dramatic emergence of Achilles' ghost.

  6. Minantī (line 443) - Threatening. Describes Achilles' intimidating appearance, reflecting his fierce nature.

  7. Ferus (line 444) - Fierce or savage. Describes Achilles' aggressive demeanor.

  8. Inmemorēs (line 445) - Forgetful. Inmemor means unmindful or not remembering, indicating the Greeks' neglect of Achilles.

  9. Virtūtis (line 446) - Virtue or valor. Refers to the honor and bravery associated with Achilles.

  10. Sepulcrum (line 448) - Tomb. Sepulcrum refers to a grave or burial place.

  11. Mactāta (line 449) - Sacrificed. From mactare, meaning to sacrifice or slay.

  12. Parentibus (line 450) - Parents or elders. Refers to those obedient to Achilles' spirit.

  13. Dirō (line 452) - Dreadful. Dirus means terrible or dire, describing the ominous tomb.

  14. Fera sacra (line 454) - Savage rites. Fera means wild or savage, and sacra refers to religious rites or sacrifices.

  15. Neoptolemum (line 455) - Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, who plays a key role in the sacrifice of Polyxena.

  16. Iugulum (line 457) - Throat. Iugulum refers to the throat or neck, a significant part of the body in sacrificial contexts.


 

  1. Line 439-440: Contextual setting - The scene sets up on the Thracian shore where the Greek fleet waits for favorable weather to sail. The focus on environment here highlights the anticipation of the soldiers.

  2. Line 441: Achilles' supernatural emergence is portrayed with grandeur, emphasizing his heroic stature even in death.

  3. Line 442-443: "Wide broken earth" symbolizes a violent and dramatic appearance from the grave, aligning with Greek tales of heroes who have impactful presences even after death.

  4. Line 444: Achilles' aggression towards Agamemnon, stemming from their historical disputes during the Trojan War, is captured here. It reflects on Achilles' unforgiving nature.

  5. Line 445-447: Achilles speaks as though betrayed by his comrades' forgetfulness of his contributions, demanding a sacrifice for his honor.

  6. Line 448: The term "sociis parentibus umbrae" can be literally translated as "to the allies and parents of the shade," indicating those who obey Achilles even after his death.

  7. Line 451: Polyxena is described with a mix of bravery, tragedy, and virtue, highlighting her exceptional character in the face of death.

  8. Line 453: The phrase "diroque fit hostia busto" uses dirus (dreadful) and hostia (sacrifice) to emphasize the horror of the sacrifice at Achilles' tomb.

  9. Line 455-457: Polyxena’s courage and dignity are emphasized as she sees her fate and addresses Neoptolemus directly.

  10. Line 460-462: The ironic plea for her blood to remain free and not used to appease the gods starkly contrasts with her fate as a ritual sacrifice.

  11. Line 463-465: Polyxena's concern for her mother reflects familial bonds and personal tragedy within the broader context of war and sacrifice.

  12. Line 466-468: Polyxena's request for a dignified burial, free from financial transactions, underscores the themes of nobility and purity in her character.

  13. Line 469-470: Polyxena's final plea to the spectators appeals to their empathy and shared heritage as descendants of Priam, indicating her royal status despite her captive condition.

  14. Line 475: The community's emotional response, unable to restrain tears, contrasts with the often stoic portrayals of Greek soldiers, highlighting the pathos of the scene.

  15. Line 480: Polyxena's concern with modesty even in her last moments adds a layer of personal dignity and cultural values regarding femininity and honor.

Translation

(easy to read)

On the Thracian shore, Atrides had moored the fleet,

waiting for calm seas, waiting for a more favorable wind:

Here suddenly, as great as he used to be when he was alive,

he emerged from the widely broken earth, similar to one threatening,

Achilles, his face resembling that time

when fiercely he sought unjust Agamemnon with a sword,

and he said, "You Greeks depart, forgetful of me,

and the honor of my virtue is buried with me!

Do not do this! So that my tomb may not be without honor,

let Polyxena, sacrificed, please the shades of Achilles!"

He spoke, and the shadow, obeyed by his allies and parents,

snatched from the embrace of her mother, who now almost alone was cherishing her,

brave and unfortunate and more than a maiden,

is led to the tomb and becomes a victim to the dreadful pyre.

After she herself, remembering herself, was brought to the cruel altars

and sensed that savage rites were being prepared for her,

and she saw Neoptolemus standing and holding the sword,

fixing his gaze upon her face,

she said, "Make use of the noble blood now long overdue;

there is no delay; but you, drive the weapon into my throat or chest,"

and she uncovered both her throat and chest.

"Surely, Polyxena would not serve anyone.

No deity will be appeased by such a sacrifice!

I only wish that my death could deceive my mother:

my mother hinders and diminishes the joy of my death, although

not my death but her life is to be feared for her.

Just so that I may go to the Stygian shades not as a slave,

go away, if I ask for just things, and with a maiden's touch,

remove your manly hands! More acceptable to him,

whoever he is, whom you prepare to please with my slaughter,

will be free blood. Yet if my last words

move anyone (Priam's daughter, not a captive, asks you),

return my unpurchased body to my mother,

and let her not ransom the sad right of burial with gold,

but with tears! When she could, she redeemed it with gold."

She had spoken, but the people do not hold back the tears she withheld;

even the priest himself, weeping and unwilling,

tore her breast with the driven sword.

Falling upon the ground with weakened knee,

she faced her final fate unflinchingly;

then too, she took care to cover her parts that should be veiled,

as she fell, maintaining the dignity of her chaste modesty.

Artistic Analysis Essay

image.png

Berrettini, Pietro. “The Sacrifice of Polyxena, Roman School of the 18th Century.” AnticStore, www.anticstore.art/107351P. Accessed 22 May 2024.

It is the school of the 18th-century Roman painting made by Pietro Berrettini that captures the dramatic and touching moment of the sacrifice of Polyxena, born out of Greek mythology in the events following the Trojan War. The myth tells the sacrifice of Polyxena, King Priam of Troy's youngest daughter, on the tomb of Achilles to appease Achilles' spirit so that the Greek forces will safely make their way back home. The myth is full of, not only themes of war, sacrifice, and the interplay of human emotions but also artistic possibilities. The actual composition in the painting is fully designed to lead the eyes of the viewer across the frame to capture the weight of the scene. At the very heart of the painting is Polyxena; she is represented in a kneeling position and is lit against an almost dark depth within the setting. Her semi-nude form, partially robed in blue, even suggests further vulnerability, and innocence, and brings in the tragic subject of sacrifice. The left is taken up by a soldier in a stern military stance; his armor and posture both seem to relay the militaristic and ritualistic connotation of the sacrifice. His gaze is set on the major event staged before him; this helps further the severity of the moment. The column and other architectural forms in the background further serve to place the setting in an elevated context, reinforcing the importance of the action. The light and color,  used by the artist, bring emotion to features within the painting highlighted through this. The lighting shown is used accordingly to focus on Polyxena since she is surrounded by an aura of light that would serve to enhance the sense of youth and purity. The figures around are in deep shadow. It is very warm, mostly in earth tones, which could add a sense of truthfulness to the very sad and serious event. Represented through the coloristic device, the blue drapery of Polyxena stands out because of its nobility and represents the cold permanence of the horror. The work is emotionally highly charged with pathos; the mixture of resignation and despair in the expression of Polyxena makes the viewer sympathetic. An element of ritualistic duty but personal sorrow is added to this by the unsteady figure of a priest / the executioner holding the knife but steadying Polyxena, showing the play between duty and humanity. The painting is full of symbolic meaning: sacrifice, purity, and tragic results of war; this is present in the urn that we see in the foreground, which in one case is for the ritual or just as a symbol of mourning, and both aspects increase the meaning of the composition. The style is typical of the 18th-century Roman school, where the classical and styles are mixed. Attention to detail, the realistic portrayal of human anatomy, the dynamic arrangement of the figures: everything can be found here. The artist is very effective in the transfer of texture, from the softness of the fabrics to the hard architectural elements, and has a good understanding of form, material, and its attributes. "The Sacrifice of Polyxena" is an exciting work that reflects the tragic essence of the subject through its composition, light and color, and emotional depth. Be that as it may, it just drives home the point of the humanitarian cost of war and how timeless issues regarding sacrifice and duty are. It is a painting of the ever-forceful power of myth and the potential of art which calls up strong emotions.

Syntax Quiz

Questions

  1. What is the grammatical role of "Atrīdēs" (line 439) in the sentence?

    • a) Subject

    • b) Direct object

    • c) Indirect object

    • d) Predicate nominative

  2. What case and function is "Lītore Thrēiciō" (line 439)?

    • a) Nominative, subject

    • b) Ablative, place where

    • c) Accusative, place to which

    • d) Genitive, possession

  3. Identify the use of the subjunctive in "dum ventus amīcior esset" (line 440).

    • a) Purpose clause

    • b) Result clause

    • c) Temporal clause

    • d) Indirect question

  4. What is the tense and voice of "exit" (line 441)?

    • a) Present, Active

    • b) Imperfect, passive

    • c) Perfect, active

    • d) Future, passive

  5. "Quantus" (line 441) functions as what part of speech in this context?

    • a) Noun

    • b) Adjective

    • c) Adverb

    • d) Pronoun

  6. What is the antecedent of "quem" in "quem caede meā plācāre parātis" (line 468)?

    • a) Achilles

    • b) Neoptolemus

    • c) Polyxena

    • d) The gods

  7. Determine the case and use of "virtūtis" (line 446).

    • a) Nominative, subject

    • b) Genitive, possession

    • c) Dative, indirect object

    • d) Accusative, direct object

  8. What is the mood and tense of "facite" (line 447)?

    • a) Indicative, present

    • b) Imperative, present

    • c) Subjunctive, present

    • d) Indicative, future

  9. What is the best translation of "mactāta" (line 449)?

    • a) To kill

    • b) Killing

    • c) Having been sacrificed

    • d) Will be sacrificed

  10. Identify the mood and tense of "plācābitis" (line 461).

    • a) Indicative, present

    • b) Subjunctive, present

    • c) Indicative, future

    • d) Imperative, future

  11. What is the case and function of "tēlum" in "conde meō tēlum" (line 458)?

    • a) Nominative, subject

    • b) Accusative, direct object

    • c) Ablative, means

    • d) Genitive, possession

  12. What part of speech is "scīlicet" (line 460) and what is its function in the sentence?

    • a) Noun, subject

    • b) Conjunction, connects clauses

    • c) Adverb, provides emphasis

    • d) Adjective, modifies a noun

Answer Key

  1. a) Subject

  2. b) Ablative, place where

  3. c) Temporal clause

  4. a) Present, Active

  5. b) Adjective

  6. d) The gods

  7. b) Genitive, possession

  8. b) Imperative, present

  9. c) Having been sacrificed

  10. c) Indicative, future

  11. b) Accusative, direct object

  12. c) Adverb, provides emphasis

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